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Н Новости

Чему может научить горилла Коко

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4 июля 1971 года в зоопарке Сан-Франциско на свет появилась 50-я горилла, которая родилась в неволе. Поскольку дата рождения этой гориллы совпадает с днём независимости США, который отмечается запуском фейерверков, её назвали Ханабико — «дитя фейерверков» по-японски. Мир знает эту удивительную гориллу под именем Коко.

В первый год жизни Коко разлучили с матерью для лечения в больнице зоопарка. Здесь на малыша впервые натолкнулась 24-летняя аспирантка Франсин Паттерсон. Во время лечения Паттерсон научила её американскому жестовому языку. Произошло удивительное, и Коко начала общаться жестами.

До Коко подобные эксперименты уже проводились. Гориллы и шимпанзе способны невероятно точно выражать свои эмоции, показывать радость, смех, разочарование, грусть, печаль. Коко пошла дальше. Несколько часов в день горилла изучала новые жесты. Вскоре в дополнение к обычным просьбам покормить солидный запас изученных жестов помог Коко рассказывать людям о себе.

Горилла не смогла завести детей. Материнская любовь Коко досталась питомцу-котёнку. Когда он попал под колёса автомобиля, горилла выдала жесты «плохо плохо плохо» и «хмуриться плакать хмуриться грустно беда».

Всего Коко освоила более тысячи жестов. Из-за своих отличных способностей горилла стала самой известной говорящей обезьяной на планете. Она умела и любила шутить.

Интеллект гориллы схож с человеческим. В тестах у Коко выявлялся высокий IQ. Если сравнивать её с людьми, то Коко умнее среднего жителя субсахарской Африки. Говорить об этом не принято. Когда этот факт повторил самый умный человек мира (IQ 210) Кристофер Ланган, Facebook¹ забанил его аккаунт.

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Коко обладала характером и умела лгать. Однажды её оставили в комнате наедине с растением в горшке. Нет ничего удивительного, что травоядная горилла съела аппетитную зелень. Паттерсон вернулась и спросила Коко, что случилось. Коко отвечала, что растение съел аспирант. Когда Франсин в ответ заметила, что люди растения не едят, а так поступают только гориллы, Коко заявила, что это была другая горилла.

Последнее записанное послание Коко — это её сообщение участникам конференции ООН по изменению климата 2015 года. В видеоролике Коко представляется и говорит: «Я горилла. Я цветы, я животные, я природа».

«Человек, Коко любить, — говорила Коко. — Земля Коко любить. Но человек глупый… Глупый! Коко сожалеет… Коко плачет. Время торопиться! Исправить Землю! Помоги Земля! Торопись! Защити Земля… Природа видеть тебя. Спасибо».

19 июня 2018 года, в возрасте 46 лет, горилла Коко умерла.

Как язык изучают дети

Так называемое «последнее послание» выпущено за три года до смерти гориллы. Вполне возможно, что есть видеозаписи новее.

Нужно ли верить, что горилла проводила замеры температуры и решила, что глобальное потепление — это важная угроза, о которой важно рассказать конференции ООН? Разумеется, нет. Видеоролик выше — это забавная ахинея, которую всерьёз представила какая-то группа французских климатических лоббистов. Выдают происходящее откровенные монтажные склейки и то, как горилла смотрит куда-то вправо (вероятно, повторяя чужие жесты).

На са́мом деле Коко никогда не умела говорить. Но обо всём по порядку.

Если человеку ввести раствор амитал-натрия в одну из сонных артерий, соответствующее полушарие мозга отключится. Если инактивировано то полушарие мозга, которое контролирует речь, человек потеряет возможность вести разговор. Как правило, проверяют это с помощью просьбы считать и читать вслух.

Подобную медицинскую процедуру называют тест Вады. Это не какой-то интересный эксперимент или сценическое развлечение, а реальная медицинская проба. Нужна она для того, чтобы до начала операции выяснить, какое полушарие мозга конкретного пациента отвечает за речь и память. Дело в том, что речевые функции собраны в левом полушарии лишь у 85–90 % людей, у правшей чаще, чем левшей — 90–95 % против 70–85 %.

Однако описания речевых центров в мозгу человека не размениваются на такие уточнения и рисуют усреднённую картину. Описываются центр Брока и область Вернике. Считается, что первый фрагмент коры головного мозга отвечает за создание (воспроизведение) речи и её моторную организацию. Вторую область связывают с усвоением речи.

Реальное число функций у этих центров выше. Поскольку эти области не изолированы от остального мозга, их функции глубже, чем такие короткие описания. К примеру, центр Брока также связан с базальными телами и различными структурами, ответственными за движения. Проследить эту связь в реальной жизни легко по тому, что люди не могут не использовать жесты и мимику там, где визуальный компоненты нет — по телефону или если оба собеседника слепы.

А вот с лимбической системой эти области связаны слабо. Именно поэтому люди часто сохраняют способность петь при афазии Брока — утере способности составлять значащие сообщения и последовательности слов из-за повреждения одноимённого центра. Также при афазии Брока при отсутствии повреждений других речевых центров человек может сохранять неплохую способность понимать чужую речь.

Соответственно, если из-за инсульта пострадает область Вернике, разовьётся глухота на слова — неспособность воспринимать речь. Но деградирует не только восприятие. Хотя при афазии Вернике речь не уйдёт, пациенты часто не осознают, что выдают бессмысленный поток жаргона.

Афазия развивается по-разному у билингвистов, которые научились воспринимать второй язык в первые 6 лет жизни, и людей, которые изучили второй язык в более взрослом возрасте. Во втором случае второй язык размещается в более периферийных частях центра и Брока и области Вернике, в то время как в первом два языка кодируются в перекрывающих друг друга регионах. Поэтому при афазии билингвы теряют способность к обоим языкам в равной степени. Изучавшие второй язык во взрослом возрасте при инсульте могут потерять лишь один из двух языков.

Физически центр Брока и область Вернике не граничат. Соединяет их дугообразный пучок — группа аксонов, которые помогают объединить воспроизведение речи с её пониманием. В теории, если эта и только эта часть мозга была повреждена, человек сохранил бы способность говорить и понимать, но не смог бы выполнить просьбу повторить какое-то слово. Но похожая на это по симптомам проводниковая афазия встречается относительно редко.

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Как дети изучают язык? Явно не в школе, где его записывают в виде правил. Уроки родного языка для школьников — относительно недавнее явление, ему несколько столетий. Дети усваивают правила языка самостоятельно на основе того, как на нём говорят окружающие. При этом язык они перенимают не от родителей, а от сверстников или детей чуть постарше. Если семья живёт в чужой стране или местности, то дети начнут говорить с локальным акцентом, а не с говором родителей.

Изучение языков универсально. В начале жизни любой человек может впитать абсолютно любой язык с любым набором звуков. Позднее эта способность теряется, и будет гораздо тяжелее понимать разницу между двумя фонемами чужого языка.

Развитие речевых центров мозга начинается ещё на стадии плода. Уже на 12–16 неделях беременности у плода в левом полушарии начинают утолщаться те области, которые станут центром Брока и областью Вернике. Эти областы выражены к 30-й неделе беременности.

После рождения, в первые 1–3 месяца жизни, ответ на все фонемы примерно одинаков.

Развитие связей между центром Брока и областью Вернике в третьем триместре и в первый месяц жизни. Научная работа «Functional connectivity for the language network in the developing brain: 30 weeks of gestation to 30 months of age» [doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab415]
Развитие связей между центром Брока и областью Вернике в третьем триместре и в первый месяц жизни. Научная работа «Functional connectivity for the language network in the developing brain: 30 weeks of gestation to 30 months of age» [doi:10.1093/cercor/bhab415]

Хотя ребёнок ещё не говорит, его мозг не лежит аморфным овощем, а выявляет структурные особенности языка. К 3 месяцу жизни ребёнок предпочитают слышать настояющую устную речь, а не беспорядочный поток слогов. В возрасте 3–6 месяцев дети уделяют больше внимания гласным.

В возрасте около 6 месяцев обнаруживается способность выявлять статистические закономерности языка. Обнаружилось это так: перед ребёнком воспроизводили статистически схожие комбинации слогов, где за одним звуком обычно следовал другой. Когда ребёнок слышал слог из необычной комбинации звуков, которые вместе до этого не встречались, его пульс учащался.

В первые два года жизни человека аксоны нейронов наиболее интенсивно покрываются миелиновой оболочкой. Образуется она не везде сразу. Область Вернике миелинизируется на девятом месяце жизни — раньше на примерно 3 месяца, чем центр Брока. Дети начинают понимать язык раньше, чем они его воспроизводят. Именно в районе 9 месяцев у детей начинается лепет: ребёнок повторяет звуки, которые где-то услышал.

Почему ребёнок в конечном итоге овладевает языком? Обсуждения этого процесса велись в 1960-х годах прошлого века.

В лагере бихевиористов и пророка их Берреса Фредерика Скиннера царила теория, которую читатель может угадать без подсказок. Считалось, что дети получают награду за воспроизведение правильных последовательностей звуков. Если упрощать до смешного, то за произнесение слова «молоко» покормят, за невнятно сказанное «бобобо» еду не дадут. Уровень глюкозы в крови упадёт, и ребёнок сделает повторную попытку правильно сказать заветную фразу. В традициях классического бихевиоризма произойдёт обусловливание.

Скиннеру оппонировал Ноам Хомский. На тот момент бихевиористы полностью доминировали в американской психологии, и борьба была неравной. Но победили именно варианты теории Хомского.

Как указывал Ноам, в период между 15 и 20 месяцами жизни ребёнка происходит ключевое событие: он произносит вслух первую комбинацию слов, которую до этого никогда не слышал от других.

Создание чего-то нового, чего ребёнок не мог получить извне, объяснить теорией бихевиоризма невозможно. Затем продолжительные периоды жизни ребёнок осваивает по десятку слов в сутки. В теорию бихевиоризма это тоже не вписывается.

Ребёнок получает разрозненные и нечёткие фрагменты эмпирических данных, а не подражает частным случаям и не усваивает всю грамматику языка путём одной индукции. В книге «Правила и репрезентации» Хомский вводит принцип бедности стимулов, согласно которому часть лингвистических способностей врождена в человека.

Именно после первой самостоятельной фразы начинается экспоненциальный взрыв освоения языка: ребёнок начинает конструировать собственные комбинации слов, а не повторять чужое. На определённом этапе развития дети на основе неидеальных примеров обобщают правила языка. Это проверили с помощью реальных экспериментов: в первые месяцы жизни ходили за детьми и записывали абсолютно всё, что они скажут.

Глухие и язык

Глухие и слабослышащие общаются на жестовом языке. Это единственное, что знает обыватель.

Единого жестового языка не существует. Страница со списком жестовых языков в «Википедии» утверждает, что суммарно в мире их в районе трёх сотен.

Важно понимать, что хотя дактилирование звуков для имён собственных присутствует, жестовый язык — это не трансляция отдельных слов звукового языка в жест, а полностью отдельное явление с собственной грамматикой и лексиконом.

Жестовые языки полноценны в культурном плане:

  • Акценты и диалекты сформировались из-за региональной удалённости и сегрегации групп населения. Один из самых ярких примеров подобного — американский язык жестов темнокожих, который происходит из обычного амслена. Среди прочего вариация отличается лексиконом, скоростью, общим стилем и использованием двух рук.

  • Рифма в жестовых языках существует. Некоторые жесты похожи на другие и перекликаются с ними, поэтому возможны (пусть и слабо развиты) песни и поэзия.

  • На похожести жестов также основаны каламбуры. К примеру, в первые несколько занятий по американскому жестовому языку новичка познакомят со следующей забавной закономерностью.

    Жест «молоко» в амслене выглядит похоже на процесс доения скота.

    При этом жест «пастеризованное молоко» явно играет на схожести английского «pasteurized» с «past your eyes» («по ту сторону твоих глаз»). Здесь жест «молоко» проводится вдоль глаз.

Нужно ли пояснять, что процесс усвоения жестовых языков с позиции нейробиологии выглядит абсолютно так же? Активируются ровно те же области коры головного мозга. Глухой от рождения ребёнок, который регулярно видит общение на жестовом языке, начинает лепетать в том же возрасте 9 месяцев, но руками.

Мозг тех, кто в качестве первого языка знает жестовый, работает так, как и у говорящего звуками. За владение жестовыми языками отвечают те же центр Брока и область Вернике. Их поражение после инсульта или травмы приведут к таким же эффектам афазии. Во время общения на языке жестов активируется слуховая кора. Знания на жестовом языке хранятся в тех же регионах мозга.

Звуковой язык — это не выдыхания и не точные движения губ и языка, а содержание передаваемого сообщения. Похожим образом жестовые языки фокусируются на значении. Если говорящего на звуковом языке попросить произносить вслух по памяти некую последовательность слов и одновременно выполнять какое-то отвлекающее движение (двигать ногами в определённом порядке), скорость и точность пострадают. Аналогичное при общении на жестовом языке случится с тем, кто владеет жестовым в качестве основного. При этом интенсивность этого эффекта будет совпадать.

Все знают, что изучать второй язык легче всего ребёнком, а если начать после 12 лет, то у человека в устной иностранной речи навсегда останется акцент родного языка. Менее известно, что новые языки изобретают тоже в первую очередь дети.

Конечно, правила языка фиксирует какая-нибудь официальная организация, к примеру Институт русского языка для русского языка или Галлодетский университет для амслена. В последнем случае организация даже изобретает новые слова.

Но именно дети изобрели современный никарагуанский жестовый язык. До 1970-х годов в Никарагуа единого языка жестов не существовало. В 1980, после революции сандинистов, в районе Манагуа Вилла Либертад было открыто профессионально-техническое училище для глухих подростков, где детей учили испанскому языку и чтению по губам. Языку жестов детей не учили. С подростками преподаватели общались дактологией — транскрипцией алфавита жестами. При этом сами ученики в свободное от занятий время друг с другом общались жестовым языком.

В итоге сформировался пиджин Lenguaje de Signos Nicaragua (LSN), который до сих пор используется посещавшими школу в то время. Более того, LSN продолжил эволюцию. Следующие поколения учеников взяли этот пиджин и повысили его грамматическую сложность, дав рождение языку Idioma de Señas de Nicaragua (ISN). Всего три поколения детей в школе создали полноценный язык, которому сегодня обучают глухих детей в Никарагуа. Процесс хорошо описан в известной статье 1994 года

Как язык изучают обезьяны

Легко подумать, что только у человека в мозгу есть центр Брока и область Вернике. И так оно и будет. Из живущих сегодня на Земле существ говорить могут только люди.

Мозг — набор мягких тканей, его останки не сохраняются. Однако эндокран, рельеф на внутренней стороне черепной коробки, наших предков австралопитеков выявляет асимметрию полушарий, схожую с той, что существует у современного человека.

Аппарат речи развивался давно, его примитивные зачатки встречаются у некоторых приматов. У современных обезьян тоже есть небольшие утолщения нейронов этих областей мозга в левом полушарии, но не настолько выраженные, как у человека. Прототип центр Брока обезьян связан с областями мозга, ответственными за мимику лица — всё как у людей.

Эти фрагменты в левом полушарии с утолщениями нейронов у обезьян не лежат мёртвым грузом:

  • Известен факт, что левое полушарие контролирует движения правой части тела, правое — левой. Когда человеческий ребёнок начинает лепетать в возрасте 9 месяцев, мимика более выражена на правой половине лица.

  • Аналогичным образом, когда обезьяны кричат, мимика более выражена в правой части их лиц. Активацию областей мозга в левом полушарии выявляют сканирования мозга во время криков обезьян и восприятия криков сородичей.

Более того, общение животных мультимодально: мимика неотделима от звуковых сигналов. Макак-резус будет крайне обескуражен (выясняется по частоте биения сердца), если ему показать изображение сородича с дружелюбным выражением морды, снабжённое вскриком опасности.

Лингвист Чарльз Хокетт выделил 16 элементов человеческого языка: семантика (связь звуковых сигналов с определёнными значениями), произвольность, дискретность, рефлексивность, смещение (возможность говорить о физически несуществуемом, описывать прошлое и мечтать о будущем) и так далее.

Да, только человеческому общению характерно смещение. Но некоторые виды животных тоже демонстрируют семантику общения: один вскрик может означать опасность сверху, другой — снизу.

Почему бы не научить животных общаться на человеческом языке? Какие на эту тему были эксперименты?

Легче и проще в настолько сложных вопросах опираться на вузовские материалы. Известный нейроэндокринолог и приматолог Роберт Сапольски известен своей работой с обезьянами. Роберт читал в Стэнфордском университете цикл лекций по биологии поведения человека. В 2011 году их выложили на YouTube. В одном из менее популярных видеороликов Сапольски подробно останавливается на языке и обезьянах.

Одной из первых говорящих обезьян была шимпанзе Вики. В начале 1950-х её воспитывали как обычного человеческого ребёнка. На киноленте она воспроизводит четыре слова («mama», «papa», «up» и «cup»).

Обучение выглядело грубо. На основании на тот момент прорывных принципов бихевиоризма за воспроизведение правильных звуков Вики получала еду и воду. Если заветных звуков не было, шимпанзе не кормили. Как говорит Сапольски, в результате такого воспитания Вики получилась обезьяной нервной. К счастью, через несколько лет эксперименты прекратили.

Никаких внятных попыток проанализировать фонетику слов Вики до недавних пор не было. Как утверждает научная статья 2023 года (doi:10.1007/s10764-023-00350-1), даже лепетание этой особои больше походит на игровое бормотание.

Схожие эксперименты в 1930-х годах проводил Уинтроп Келлог. Вдохновляясь индийскими детьми-маугли Амалой и Камалой, он решил очеловечить 7,5-месячного детёныша шимпанзе Гуа.

Вспомним: язык люди перенимают от сверстников и чуть более старших детей, а не родителей. Келлог пошёл дальше, чем позднее это сделают приёмные «папа» и «мама» Вики. Он не просто воспитывал Гуа как человека, а растил её вместе с собственным 10-месячным ребёнком Дональдом как брата и сестру.

В возрасте примерно года Гуа обходила Дональда в некоторых простых задачах, однако уже здесь были заметны характерные различия. Дональд узнавал людей по лицам, Гуа — по запахам и одежде. Когда дело доходило до вопросов освоения языка, детёныш человека уверенно обходил ребёнка-шимпанзе.

В конечном итоге этот эксперимент ни к чему продуктивному не привёл, если не считать того, что Дональд начал воспроизводить звуки шимпанзе. Очеловечивания не получилось. Эксперимент прервали через девять месяцев после его начала. По окончании эксперимента Гуа отправили в лабораторию, где у неё развилась пневмония, и менее через год она умерла.

Вообще, тесты Келлога поражают своей неэтичностью и полным отсутствием мер безопасности. В видеоролике ниже на отметке 4:30 Гуа и Дональд сидят на открытом воздухе. Затем папашка достаёт пистолет и производит выстрел (будем надеяться, холостыми) в полуметре от их ушей. Эксперимент был посвящён скорости реакции обезьяны и человека.

Гортань обезьян от человеческой отличается. Возможно, они не могут воспроизводить язык, поскольку у них нет соответствующей анатомии? Решение куда проще: учить их жестовому языку!

Такая идея родилась у Аллена и Беатрс Гарднеров, а проверили её на шимпанзе Уошо в шестидесятых годах прошлого столетия. Утверждалось, что обезьяна освоила сотни жестов — 250 или 350 в зависимости от источника. Этими жестами Уошо общалась с Гарднерами.

Литература про Уошо захватывала. В статьях рассказывалось, что Уошо демонстрировала один из признаков человеческого языка: изобретение новых слов. Завидев утку, шимпанзе для её обозначения соединила два жеста «вода» и «птица».

Уошо умела лгать. Как рассказывает Сапольски, она жила в трейлере в университетском кампусе, где по вечерам её жесты снимали на камеру. Среди прочего интерьера трейлера также присутствовал холодильник, открывать который Уошо запрещалось. Иногда происходило забавное: в тишине можно было видеть шимпанзе, крадущуюся к холодильнику и повторяющую жестами «тихо Уошо тихо Уошо».

Для Уошо завели сородича, который, как утверждалось, не менее интересным образом изучил её язык и через пару месяцев начал с ней общаться. Насколько это достижение интересно выглядело в реальной жизни?

Роберт Сапольски вспоминает, что первым отточенным предложением было именно то, что любит каждый шимпанзе: «щекотать меня». Все шимпанзе обожают, когда их щекочут. Работать с шимпанзе весело: их можно целый день щекотать, и за это ничего не будет, поскольку они взаимностью не отвечают. Кстати, жест «щекотать» похож на указание на наручные часы, и именно он так часто встречается в «послании» Коко для ООН.

Так этот первый разговор и выглядел: Уошо уселась напротив сородича и заявила: «Щекотать меня». Сородич отвечал не менее осмысленно: «Щекотать меня». Уошо сказала: «Щекотать меня меня меня меня меня». В ответ сородич намекнул: «Щекотать меня щекотать меня щекотать меня щекотать меня». Наконец шимпанзе встали и разошлись в противоположных направлениях.

Однако научное сообщество находилось в экстазе от обезьян, общающихся на амслене. Нужно немедленно заметить, что с человеческим жестовым языком язык приматов имел несколько различий. Человеческая кисть обладает более точными движениями, поэтому часть жестов обезьянам неподвластна и для них была упрощена до того, что в английском называют Gorilla Sign Language. Одновременно с этим нельзя сказать, что человек владеет иностранным языком просто потому, что освоил на нём тысячу слов.

Но про обезьян все говорили, что они говорят на амслене.

В семидесятых появилась самая лучшая из говорящих обезьян. Аспирантка Франсин (Пенни) Паттерсон решила, что учить человеческим языкам надо горилл. Действительно, если сравнивать темперамент обезьян, то шимпанзе — вертлявые дети с СДВГ. Для своих целей Пенни раздобыла самку по имени Коко из зоопарка Сан-Франциско.

Работа Паттерсон с Коко была полна достижений. Рассказывалось, что Коко говорит о своих снах и сплетничает. Последнее означает, что если Коко видела, как два лаборанта поссорились, она могла позднее рассказать об этом. Коко якобы была способна размышлять и лгать. Впрочем, последним свойством обладали все эти говорящие обезьяны.

Известность Коко простиралась далеко за научные круги. В 1978 году популярность Коко достигла пика. На обложке журнала National Geographic появилась себяшка гориллы-сенсации, которую Коко сняла в зеркале. (До вопросов копирайта селфи обезьяны ещё больше 35 лет.)

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Однако в начале восьмидесятых всё сошло на нет.

За несколько лет до этого Герберт Террес начал собственный эксперимент с шимпанзе по имени Ним Чимпски. Кличка шимпанзе — каламбур от английского сокращения «chimp» (шимпанзе) и имени Ноама Хомского (Chomsky).

Теория Хомского гласила, что только человек способен научиться говорить. С помощью Нима Террес возжелал опровергнуть это утверждение.

Как и все предыдущие обезьяны, Ним изучал варинт американского языка жестов. Если Уошо жила на Западном побережье США, то Чимпски проживал в доме в Манхэттене в Нью-Йорке. Другое различие, за которое позднее эксперимент часто будут критиковать, заключалось в ротации обучающих. В возрасте двух лет шимпанзе изъяли из его привычной семьи суррогатных родителей-людей, а затем подвергали обучению разными инструкторами. Сапольски вспоминает, что и ему самому довелось целое лето щекотать Нима.

Через три года экспериментов достижения мира языка животных низвергли. Террес заявил, что приматы не говорят и что Хомский прав.

В первом серьёзном анализе этой области (doi:10.1126/science.504995) указывалось, что большинство последовательностей жестов от Нима были ответом на жесты от людей. Ним прерывал жесты инструкторов куда чаще, чем прерывает речь родителей изучающий язык ребёнок.

За 19 месяцев обучения, предваряющие публикацию статьи 1979 года, размер лексикона Нима почти утроился с 42 до 125 жестов. Тем не менее длина комбинаций не выросла и на 50 %: средний показатель в 1,1 жеста увеличился лишь до 1,6. Если некоторые наборы из двух жестов были похожи, то комбинации из трёх жестов Нима не демонстрировали никаких признаков лексических закономерностей.

Это всё статистика. Реальные последовательности слов жалки и примитивны. По таблицам легко заметить, что шимпанзе просто брутфорсил получение еды и просил с ним поиграть.

25 самых часто используемых двух- и трёхжестовых фраз Нима. doi:10.1126/science.504995
25 самых часто используемых двух- и трёхжестовых фраз Нима. doi:10.1126/science.504995

Чем больше слов в потоке сообщения человека, тем больше смысла вложено. Но длинные фразы Нима не были более осмысленными.

Научная статья приводит пример фразы из 16 жестов: «дай апельсин мне дай есть апельсин мне есть апельсин дай мне есть апельсин дай мне ты». Чтобы передать «дай апельсин», хватило бы и двух жестов. Легко представить, что шимпанзе просто особо сильно проголодался.

Самые популярные четырёхжестовые фразы Нима. doi:10.1126/science.504995
Самые популярные четырёхжестовые фразы Нима. doi:10.1126/science.504995

Общение Нима не было спонтанным, его фразы были реакцией на «если ответишь, получишь кусочек хлопьев Fruit Loops». Кстати, многие участники проекта потихоньку жевали эти Fruit Loops, предназначенные для испытуемого.

Что куда более важно, статья говорила не только о собственном провале — были проанализированы видеозаписи других подопытных. Вывод Терреса утверждал: все обезьяны осваивают визуальные символы, но у них нет способности соединять их в новые значения. В высказываниях обезьян было обнаружено схожее отсутствие креативного процесса и зависимость от жестов обучающих.

Диалог с Уошо, который приводится в качестве примера неправильной атрибуции произведённого. Логично говорить о речи шимпанзе только в том случае, если бы отсутствовали подсказки учителя и награды (щекотка). doi:10.1126/science.504995
Диалог с Уошо, который приводится в качестве примера неправильной атрибуции произведённого. Логично говорить о речи шимпанзе только в том случае, если бы отсутствовали подсказки учителя и награды (щекотка). doi:10.1126/science.504995

Уошо не придумала слово для утки. Объяснение двум жестам куда проще: это два отдельных жеста «вода» и «птица», вызванных тем, что шимпанзе увидела плавающую в воде утку.

Исследователи критическим взором отсмотрели видеозаписи c Уошо. Было замечено, что шимпанзе просто повторяет жесты Гарднер. Все из многожестовых фраз, которые выдавала Уошо, немедленно до употребления обезьяной встречались в последовательности жестов инструктора. Аналогичное было справедливо для Коко.

Наконец, несколько слов нужно добавить про тестирование IQ гориллы Коко. Речь идёт про то изречение, за которое Facebook¹ выдал бан Кристоферу Лангану. Животное получало не обычный тест для взрослых людей, а детский тест Кеттела.

Как пишет сама Паттерсон, полученные данные по IQ для сравнения с человеческим не подходят. Рядом в тексте даётся пример бессмысленности этой проверки: однажды какой-то орангутан показал в таком тесте IQ равный 200, и в большей степени это сигнализирует о хорошем развитии его моторных функций. Сравнивать IQ гориллы и жителей Африки просто невозможно.

Исследователей больше интересовал эквивалент возраста Коко в человеческих годах. Указывается, что к маю 1977 года в возрасте 5,5 лет горилла показывала эквивалент интеллекта человеческого ребёнка, которому 4 года 8 месяцев.

«Самый умный человек в мире» Кристофер Ланган просто набирает большие баллы в тестах на IQ. Это любопытный пример бессмысленности тестов на IQ, поскольку в повседневной жизни интеллектуальным трудом этот человек не занимается. Ланган был рабочим на на стройке и ферме, а также 20 лет отышачил вышибалой в клубе. Никакой экспертизы о человеческом интеллекте у Кристофера нет.

В меме ничего нового нет. Сравнивать IQ обезьян и каких-нибудь сомалийцев — это поклонники политического экстремизма любят. Поспорить здесь можно лишь о политике модерации Facebook¹.

Чему поучиться у Коко

Франсин Паттерсон продолжила работу с Коко, формально украв обезьяну. Изначально ей обещали животное всего на несколько лет, но Пенни попросту отказалась возвращать гориллу, мотивируя это тем, что Коко теперь обладает человеческими ценностями. Дело запахло судебным иском об эмансипации гориллы. Зоопарк предугадал надвигающийся шторм общественного мнения и не стал требовать вернуть животное. Вероятно, 60 тысяч долларов стоимости животного было дешевле списать.

Вскоре начались конфликты Паттерсон против Терреса, которые быстро перешли на уровень личных замечаний. Террес утверждал, что Паттерсон понятия не имеет, что такое контролируемый эксперимент. Пенни отвечала, что Террес — холодная рыба, которая довела Нима до аутизма беспорядочной чередой инструкторов по 20–30 штук в год. Если в этом и была доля горькой правды, то под конец Франсин вообще заявила, что Терресу просто не повезло — Ним якобы туповат.

Франсин удалось продолжить считаться научным исследователем без внятных научных публикаций. В 1976 году она основала Gorilla Foundation, фонд, который спонсировал её исследования в дальнейшем. На сайте организации собран список из различных работ. Однако Сапольски утверждает, что публике вместо твёрдых научных данных представили лишь несколько трогательных документалок про гориллу вида «Коко и глобальное потепление» или «Коко и внешнеторговый дефицит». Полноценные видеоролики с общением оставались материалом для внутреннего использования.

То, как Паттерсон общалась с Коко в этих фильмах, выглядело смешно. Сапольски вспоминает, что Пенни показывала горилле предмет и спрашивала: «Как это называется?» Обезьяна выдавала абсолютно неправильный жест. Франсин отвечала: «Да ладно тебе шутить». Вопрос повторялся с другим предметом, и неправильный ответ заставлял исследовательницу лишь улыбаться: «Ой, ну ты смешная горилла». Неправильные ответы Паттерсон объясняла шутками Коко.

Важно помнить, что Паттерсон могла искренне заблуждаться. Вполне возможно, что Пенни и сама верила, что Коко её понимала и отвечала жестами — ведь дрессировщик Умного Ганса тоже был уверен, что лошадь может складывать и умножать в уме. На деле лошадь просто наблюдала за языком тела дрессировщика и эмоциями публики.

h9exy5z2nuhjk-4jnubf1nn5ufk.jpeg

Схожее «общение» наблюдается в любом публичном появлении Коко. К примеру, вот фрагмент чата 27 апреля 1998 года Коко по AOL, забавность которого отмечали СМИ. Тогда чаты в Интернете оставались диковинкой, а здесь ещё и вели стриминг видео по веб-камере.

DrPPatrsn: Коко, тебе нравится говорить с людьми?

LiveKOKO: Хорошо сосок.

DrPPatrsn: Да, это её ответ. «Сосок» [nipple] рифмуется с «людьми» [people], окей? Она не любит показывать жест «люди», поэтому она может пытаться заменить его похожим по звучанию жестом, но она указывает, что общаться «хорошо».

Кстати, появление «соска» закономерно. По неизвестной причине во взрослом возрасте у гориллы развилась странноватая фиксация на сосках людей. Она любила рассматривать и трогать чужую грудь, неважно, мужскую или женскую. Касалось это и обслуживающего персонала, и посетителей-знаменитостей. О том, как его схватила за соски горилла, в жанре стендапа рассказывал Робин Уильямс.

В 2005 году организации Gorilla Foundation пришлось даже урегулировать судебный иск с двумя бывшими работниками. Двух новых сотрудниц попросили обнажить грудь для Коко. Паттерсон объясняла, что Коко постоянно видит грудь Франсин, и её соски горилле наскучили, поэтому нужно увидеть новые. Схожие жалобы поступали от других сотрудники фонда.

Вернёмся к чату. Как известно, рифма в жестовых языках основывается на схожести жестов, а не произношении слов в звуковом языке. Жесты для «соска» и «людей» в американском жестовом языке ничего общего не имеют (1, 2). Если человек (или любое иное существо) мыслит на амслене, то вряд ли в его сознании эти два слова будут рифмоваться.

Если перечитать весь лог чата, будет заметно, что Паттерсон попросту додумывает значения жестам Коко. Обезьяна сидит и чешется, Пенни развлекает чат толкованиями немногочисленных коротких комбинаций жестов. В некоторых случаях человек — нечаянно или нарочно — подсказывает обезьяне, что нужно говорить: «Скажем до свидания?»


На стадии предобучения большая языковая модель (БЯМ) получает все доступные исследователям тексты человечества, на основании чего сама усваивает правила человеческой письменной речи. Однако этот текст — не про схожесть обучения нейросетей и человеческих детей.

Могут ли большие языковые модели рассуждать? Адепты универсального искусственного интеллекта обещают, что непременно могут или смогут в ближайшем будущем.

Проверить способность рассуждать легко. Нужно взять одну и ту же задачу и заменить в ней некоторые слова и понятия, к примеру названия переменных или коцепций. Если БЯМ решает задачу одинаково хорошо в обоих случаях, она действительно рассуждает.

Ни одна современная языковая модель не может правильно решить изменённую задачу про волка, коза и капусту. Обычно в этой известнейшей логической задачке нужно перевезти двух животных и капусту на другую сторону реки. В предложенном ниже варианте волк и капуста были удалены. Фермеру нужно просто погрузиться на лодку и переплыть на другую сторону.

Тем не менее задача непосильна как Claude Sonnet 3.5, так и GPT-4o. Все они утверждают, что нужно пересечь реку больше одного раза.

ob7uifx5zy-ogkkhccxxk1i1pui.png

Да что переменные — в некоторых других задачах всё настолько плохо, что задача не решается при изменении чисел.

Кажется, что включение множества цепочек рассуждения (Chain of Thought, CoT) поможет достичь заветной цели. Однако превью-версия o1 тоже не может решить изменённую версию этой задачи. Если сделать как козу, так и волка травоядными, она начинает цитировать стандартное решение этой задачи, которое оставляет волка наедине с капустой.

@cleanunicorn

Как про CoT шутит Суббарао Камбхампати, если дать БЯМ рыбу, то она будет сыта один день, если дать две рыбы, то будет сыта два дня, если дать три, то три дня и так далее. В вышедшей в мае этого года научной статье с его участием (arXiv:2405.04776) наивное полагание на CoT критикуется. Утверждается, что положительный эффект цепочки рассуждений быстро теряется.

Позднее Камбхампати зачитал доклад, где почти час раз за разом просит не путать извлечение информации с планированием. Исследователь утверждает, что БЯМ не могут ни рассуждать, ни планировать. Использовать он их рекомендует как генераторы идей или приблизительные источники информации.

Но какая разница, могут ли БЯМ размышлять? Даже если это неправильный путь к универсальному искусственному интеллекту, внимания отрасли на ближайшие несколько лет хватит. Даже если модель o1 ведёт в никуда, OpenAI сделала правильную ставку.

Как показывает пример Франсин Паттерсон, если направление исследований критикуется как тупиковое, из него всё равно можно выжать несколько лет мировой известности.


(1) Facebook — запрещённая экстремистская организация.

Источник

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  • 06.07.26 16:20 Olga Ognjanović

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  • 07.07.26 18:00 robertalfred175

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  • 07.07.26 18:01 robertalfred175

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  • 16.07.26 21:38 patricialovick86

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  • 18.07.26 23:51 bernalzenaida

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  • 19.07.26 04:10 Fraddy Pual

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  • 19.07.26 19:53 kimberlyhebertt6877

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  • 19.07.26 19:53 kimberlyhebertt6877

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  • 19.07.26 19:54 kimberlyhebertt6877

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  • 30.07.26 00:04 Ahmed

    A really cool analysis, thank you. I was especially struck by how strictly the order is defined: data processing and formatting come first, with color only at the very end. This really saves you from the typical mistake of "first a pretty palette, then we figure out what the chart is for." And the palette validator with OKLCH + colorblindness check is absolutely fantastic; you almost never see that in regular tools. By the way, while reading about rank-trajectory and the logarithmic scale, I immediately remembered how convenient it is to analyze dynamics on charts in ExpertOption—I've been trading there for quite some time now. When the data is well visualized, decisions are noticeably easier and more relaxed. I also liked the point about "no more than eight colors" and the dual-axis ban. Strict restrictions sometimes actually produce better results than complete freedom. I'll try this approach myself.

  • 30.07.26 17:27 wendytaylor015

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  • 30.07.26 17:27 wendytaylor015

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  • 04.08.26 11:05 Kisnoles

    Excellent analysis, thank you. I was particularly struck by how rigidly the skill sets the order: data processing and form come first, with color coming last. This really cures the habit of "first a pretty palette, then we'll figure it out." A palette validator using OKLCH + color blindness + WCAG is something most chart generators lack. And regarding the boundaries of competence, it's very clear. Where there's a self-checking loop (color), you delegate freely. Where there's a heuristic (form, data interpretation), you remain the final filter. This is a universal principle, not just for /dataviz. By the way, when you look at trading dashboards (including those of decent platforms like ExpertOption), it's immediately clear who thought about readability and who just threw in rainbow lines. Tools like this skill could greatly improve the quality of analytics. Thanks again for the detailed analysis – saved.

  • 04.08.26 12:37 kimberlyhebertt6877

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  • 16.08.26 01:44 Matt Kegan

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  • 18.08.26 04:59 marcushenderson624

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  • 19.08.26 14:50 BAYER7043

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  • 20.08.26 11:32 michaeldavenport218

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  • 23.08.26 20:02 leslieyee

    Excellent analysis by /dataviz! I was particularly struck by how strictly the order is defined: "data meaning first, color last" and how the validator actually adjusts the palette according to OKLCH, color blindness, and WCAG standards. These rules greatly improve the quality of charts. By the way, a similar approach to clean and legible charts is highly valued in trading—for example, on the ExpertOption platform, the interface and price visualization are designed to ensure information is read instantly and without unnecessary noise.

  • 25.08.26 13:44 lydiassmith567

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  • 30.08.26 15:37 [email protected]

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  • 01.09.26 17:34 Garry42

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  • 02.09.26 03:43 kimberlyhebertt6877

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  • 04.09.26 21:51 Kovengray

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  • 05.09.26 21:38 [email protected]

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  • 09.09.26 21:31 lisawerth897

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  • 09.09.26 21:31 lisawerth897

    My Experience With Cryptocurrency — CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER I lost over $82,000 in Bitcoin after falling victim to a fraudulent online investment scheme. After realizing I had been scammed, I spent considerable time researching possible ways to recover my funds. During my research, I came across CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER and decided to contact them after reading their reported success record and encouraging client positive reviews and testimonials. Their team guided me through the recovery process, and I was grateful to successfully recover my lost cryptocurrency. The experience was challenging, but I appreciated the assistance and support I received throughout the process. I’m sharing my experience in the hope that it may encourage other victims to carefully research their options and verify any recovery service before proceeding. I will forever be thankful to you CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER 📧 [email protected] 🌐 Website: recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1 📧 [email protected] 📞 Call/WhatsApp: +1 (336) 390-6684

  • 09.09.26 23:22 Fraddy Pual

    Hearing that these individuals are focusing on other people makes me very sad. I had a similar situation with them and lost a lot of money, but after learning about (Cruxcipherteam @ proton DoT me), whataqq:+168160-15021, telegram: @Cruxcipherteam I was able to get my money back. It's critical that we all be watchful and keep reporting these occurrences.

  • 11.09.26 03:23 kimberlyhebertt6877

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  • 11.09.26 03:23 kimberlyhebertt6877

    I invested in bitcoin trading After losing $78.4 USDT) linked to a romance fraud scam worth of cryptocurrency through an online investment platform and later discovered it was a scam. After extensive research for recovery options, I contacted CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER based on positive client reviews and recommendations. Their professional security team guided me through the recovery process using advanced technology, and I was able to recover my lost cryptocurrency successfully. I am truly grateful for their support and assistance during such a difficult experience. I will advise you to contact CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER helped me recover my funds. For anyone facing similar issues, Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1 Email: [email protected] Telegram: @Capitalcryptorecover Contact: [email protected] WhatsApp/Text Number: +1 (336) 390-6684

  • 15.09.26 03:35 elioduncan

    I fell victim to a freelance web development contract scam that ultimately cost me CAD 4,000. It all started when I came across a job posting on Indeed Canada, a popular online job portal. The position seemed perfect: a freelance web developer role for an established company looking for someone to design and build a fully functional e-commerce website. The job promised a high payment of CAD 20,000 upon successful completion, which sounded like a great opportunity for me to gain experience and earn decent pay.The employer, who introduced himself as a project manager from a "well-known" tech company, was very persuasive and professional in our initial communication. He explained that the project involved developing a user-friendly, responsive online store for their client and that they had a strict timeline to meet. He assured me that the payment would be made promptly after completing the tasks. However, before starting the work, he told me that I would need to pay an upfront fee of CAD 4,000 to cover certain software tools and licensing fees required for the project. This was supposedly a part of their company policy for freelance contractors, ensuring access to their premium resources. The idea of working on a professional project, coupled with the promise of a substantial payout, convinced me to pay the upfront fee.As soon as I made the payment, the project manager became increasingly difficult to reach. He initially responded to my emails and provided some vague instructions on what the project would entail, but as time went on, communication slowed to a complete halt. I never received the required tools or any proper project details. My emails went unanswered, and any attempts to contact the company were met with silence. After waiting for weeks, I realized that I had been scammed.Desperate to recover my money, I turned to TechY Force Cyber Retrieval, a service that specializes in helping victims of online scams. They helped me track the payment and took legal steps to pursue the fraudsters. Through their guidance, I was able to recover the full CAD 4,000. TechY Force Cyber Retrieval worked with my bank to reverse the transaction and liaised with the authorities to trace the scammer's details.This was a hard lesson, and I now know to be highly cautious about online job offers that require upfront payments. It is crucial to research companies thoroughly and avoid any job that seems too good to be true, especially when it involves paying money upfront. WhatsApp https://wa.link/2x6ktp Mail. [email protected]

  • 15.09.26 15:45 lydiassmith567

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  • 15.09.26 15:45 lydiassmith567

    HIRE A HACKER YOUR STOLEN CRYPTO RECOVERY / BTC / USDT / ETH WITH THE HELP OF CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER. I want to share my experience publicly regarding cryptocurrency wallet recovery, I highly recommend you to contact CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER, a professional private investigator in the Bitcoin world. They have a certified expert security team specializing in Bitcoin Recovery Services and have helped many people worldwide recover their lost funds. My wife and I were defrauded by an online manipulator posing as an experienced crypto investment professional. We lost $9.2 Million Stolen BTC in cryptocurrency and were left feeling homeless. After spending hours searching for a reliable crypto recovery service, I discovered CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER online. By patiently explaining my situation to their team, I was able to recover all my funds. Remarkably, my money was returned to my wallet in less than 24 hours. I am extremely grateful to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER for their excellent assistance—they truly were a godsend in my difficult situation. If you have fallen victim to a cryptocurrency scam, you can reach CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER through the following channels Email: [email protected] OR Call/WhatsApp: +1 (336) 390-6684 Contact: [email protected] Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1

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