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DRAйверы для GPU: как Kubernetes научился выделять устройства через стандартный API

Dynamic Resource Allocation — это стандартный механизм Kubernetes для запроса и совместного использования устройств. Он даёт фильтрацию по атрибутам (CEL), шаринг, централизованные классы устройств и более правильный рабочий процесс, чем device plugins.

Но при этом DRA — это не один переключатель. Внутри него есть фичи с разными стадиями (stable/beta/alpha), и миграция с device plugins на DRA должна идти по ступеням.

В первой статье мы разобрали, почему device plugin рано или поздно упирается в потолок, если вы строите коммунальный кластер с продом, обучением и кучей разношёрстных нагрузок, а не используете GPU для одной команды.

В этой же статье я хочу сделать три вещи:

  1. Показать, что именно Kubernetes добавил вместе с DRA и почему это действительно меняет модель управления устройствами.

  2. Разложить реальный путь миграции с device plugin на примере коммунального кластера на H100, чтобы переход не выглядел как проект «переписать половину манифестов и заодно придумать новую религию».

  3. Рассказать, почему мы делаем свой DRA-драйвер в Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform, а не берём готовые.

Меня по-прежнему зовут Александр Подмосковный, и я менеджер продукта в команде Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform, где развиваю направление ML/AI. Погнали разбираться с возможностями, которые даёт DRA.

09596493d9d8ec70c83b875db161e211.png

Когда один кластер обслуживает разные классы нагрузок: 8 узлов × 8 видеокарт H100

Представим, что у нас есть общий кластер для нескольких команд:

  • 8 GPU-узлов;

  • на каждом по 8 × NVIDIA H100 80GB;

  • всего 64 GPU.

Внутри кластера живут три класса нагрузок:

  • ML-обучение и эксперименты — им нужны «честные» карты и предсказуемость;

  • продовый инференс — много сервисов, которым часто не нужна вся H100;

  • короткие GPU-задачи — CI, профилировки, batch inference, эпизодические нагрузки.

В device-plugin-модели все они упираются в один и тот же примитив: «дай N устройств». А дальше начинается отдельная инженерная жизнь: Multi-Instance GPU, time-slicing, Multi-Process Service, scheduler-extender, очереди, пулы, правила, исключения. Именно здесь на сцену выходит DRA.

Короткая и полезная мысль про DRA

Dynamic Resource Allocation делает с устройствами примерно то же, что Kubernetes когда-то сделал с хранилищем:

  • раньше диск «как-то» подключали;

  • потом появились StorageClass и PersistentVolumeClaim;

  • и дальше стало проще строить платформу, а не систему договорённостей.

В документации Kubernetes DRA прямо сравнивают с динамическим выделением томов. Device drivers и администраторы описывают классы устройств, DRA-драйвер публикует инвентарь, а Kubernetes подбирает устройство под конкретную заявку пользователя и размещает под там, где оно доступно.

Главное изменение модели работы с ресурсами здесь простое:

GPU перестаёт быть числом в NodeStatus и становится сущностью, для которой есть инвентарь, атрибуты и правила выбора.

Четыре сущности, без которых DRA не понять

Если убрать из DRA всю «идеологию» и оставить только прикладную механику, то есть четыре ключевые сущности.

1. ResourceSlice: инвентарь, который публикует DRA-драйвер

В DRA именно драйвер публикует в кластер ResourceSlice — инвентарь доступных устройств с атрибутами и capacity. Это то место, где GPU впервые перестаёт быть просто «ещё одним счётчиком на узле».

Для GPU это принципиально, потому что теперь планировщик Kubernetes может видеть:

  • тип устройства;

  • память;

  • профиль MIG;

  • готовность для CUDA/VFIO/DRM;

  • топологию, interconnect и близость к сетевым устройствам.

1398efe54db8df740bcb44eed1194297.png

В DRA планировщик выбирает устройство не только по числу GPU на узле. Он сопоставляет ResourceSlice, DeviceClass и ResourceClaim, после чего записывает результат allocation в ResourceClaim.

2. DeviceClass: категория устройств и правила выбора

DeviceClass — это кластерный объект, который описывает:

  • какие устройства нас вообще интересуют;

  • как их фильтровать (обычно через CEL);

  • если нужно, каким extended resource name этот класс должен выглядеть для пользователей.

Этот слой заменяет «зоопарк» лейблов и пулов на более осмысленную декларативную модель. Например, класс «H100 целиком» выглядит так:

apiVersion: resource.k8s.io/v1
kind: DeviceClass
metadata:
  name: nvidia-h100-physical
spec:
  selectors:
    - cel:
        expression: |
          device.driver == "gpu.deckhouse.io" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].vendor == "nvidia" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].deviceType == "Physical" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].cudaReady == true &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].productName.lowerAscii().contains("h100")

Смысл не в строках, а в том, что критерии выбора теперь живут в API-объекте, а не в договорённостях между людьми.

3. ResourceClaim / ResourceClaimTemplate: заявка на устройство

ResourceClaim — это заявка «мне нужен вот такой девайс (или его часть), с такими свойствами, в таком режиме».

ResourceClaimTemplate — это удобный путь для рабочих нагрузок: Pod/Deployment/StatefulSet создаёт заявки автоматически из шаблона. Документация Kubernetes прямо рекомендует использовать Template для per-Pod claims.

И вот здесь DRA становится по-настоящему интересным: в заявке можно не только запросить устройство, но и задать capacity request — например, долю shared-устройства.

4. Pod: связка spec.resourceClaims и resources.claims

Чтобы под реально получил устройство, у него появляются две части (подробности смотрите в документации):

  • spec.resourceClaims — откуда берётся claim;

  • resources.claims у контейнера — какой claim использовать.

Впервые прочитав про все сущности, кто-то может сказать: «Это слишком сложно!» И такая реакция будет честной. Но есть и хорошие новости — можно переезжать на DRA, не заставляя всех пользователей изучать DRA API.

Где появляется ответ на вопрос, как переезжать на DRA и не плакать

Итак, посмотрев на необходимость разбираться с DeviceClass, ResourceClaimTemplate, spec.resourceClaims и resources.claims, можно испытать желание остаться на nvidia.com/gpu: 1. Но Kubernetes добавил очень важный мостик для миграции с device plugin, который многие пропускают.

Есть фича Extended Resource allocation by DRA. Она позволяет указать в DeviceClass поле extendedResourceName. Тогда под может продолжать использовать привычный extended resource в limits/requests, а планировщик будет выбирать устройства через DRA и автоматически создавать специальный ResourceClaim.

apiVersion: resource.k8s.io/v1
kind: DeviceClass
metadata:
  name: nvidia-h100-physical
spec:
  selectors:
    - cel:
        expression: |
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].vendor == "nvidia" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].deviceType == "Physical" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].cudaReady == true &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].productName.lowerAscii().contains("h100")
  extendedResourceName: gpu.deckhouse.io/h100

Под при этом всё ещё выглядит знакомо. Это уже не device plugin, хотя снаружи очень похоже:

resources:
  limits:
    gpu.deckhouse.io/h100: 8

Важные детали:

  • На момент написания статьи фича Extended Resource allocation by DRA в бете, поэтому она включается feature gate’ом DRAExtendedResource на apiserver, scheduler, controller-manager и kubelet.

  • Один и тот же extended resource может предоставляться device plugin на одних узлах и DRA на других. Это и делает поэтапную миграцию реальной.

  • Но на одном и том же узле один и тот же ресурс не должен одновременно приезжать и от device plugin, и от DRA — это прямо учтено в KEP extended resource requests via DRA Driver.

Практический вывод:

Если вы хотите начать миграцию без переписывания всех подов в новый DRA-синтаксис, есть рабочий путь: сначала мостик через extended resources, потом уже всё остальное.

DRA не существует без драйвера: от контракта к реализации

Вот место, которое важно проговорить отдельно.

DRA в Kubernetes — это не новый способ написать YAML. Это контракт, а реальная система появляется только вместе с DRA-драйвером.

Kubernetes так и формулирует: DRA-драйверы публикуют инвентарь, а kubelet вызывает их для подготовки и освобождения устройства в течение жизненного цикла пода. Вот что делает DRA-драйвер на узле:

Упрощённый workflow такой:

  1. Драйвер публикует ResourceSlice.

  2. Планировщик делает allocation и пишет его в ResourceClaim.

  3. kubelet вызывает PrepareResourceClaims.

  4. Драйвер готовит устройство и возвращает то, что нужно рантайму.

  5. При завершении работы пода kubelet вызывает UnprepareResourceClaims.

Физически это gRPC-сервис на Unix-сокете. В helper-пакете Kubernetes прямо описаны dra.sock и каталог /var/lib/kubelet/plugins/<driver name> для плагина на узле.

[root@k8s-w3-gpu gpu.deckhouse.io]# pwd
/var/lib/kubelet/plugins/gpu.deckhouse.io
[root@k8s-w3-gpu gpu.deckhouse.io]# ls -lha
total 5.4M
drwxr-xr-x. 3 root root 4.0K Mar 16 12:39 .
drwxr-x---. 4 root root 4.0K Jan 30 07:12 ..
-rw-r--r--. 1 root root 2.0K Mar 16 12:39 checkpoint.json
-rw-------. 1 root root    0 Feb 18 18:57 cp.lock
srwxr-xr-x. 1 root root    0 Mar 12 08:56 dra.sock
-rw-r--r--. 1 root root  347 Mar  7 10:50 mig-placements-cache.json
drwxr-xr-x. 2 root root 4.0K Mar 15 10:11 mps
-rwxr-xr-x. 1 root root  554 Mar 12 08:56 nvidia-cdi-hook
-rwxr-xr-x. 1 root root 5.3M Mar 12 08:56 nvidia-cdi-hook.bin
-rw-r--r--. 1 root root    0 Feb 25 00:44 prepare.lock
-rw-r--r--. 1 root root    0 Jan 15 23:18 pu.lock

CDI: как устройство попадает в контейнер

Современная экосистема DRA обычно опирается на CDI (Container Device Interface) как стандарт для описания устройства для контейнерного рантайма. CDI не решает вопрос, кому дать GPU, — он стандартизирует только способ инъекции устройства в контейнер.

И это важный практический момент: если у вас неправильно включён CDI в containerd/CRI-O, то DRA-allocation может выглядеть корректно в API, но контейнер устройства не увидит.

Как устроен DRA-драйвер в GPU-модуле Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform

Описанные выше контракт DRA, драйверы, ResourceSlice, Prepare/Unprepare — это upstream-механика. Теперь коротко посмотрим, как она реализована в GPU-модуле Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform, ведь именно на примере нашей платформы я буду разбирать переезд коммунального кластера на DRA-модель.

Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform уже с версии 1.71 умеет управлять GPU-узлами на NVIDIA-стеке, включая режимы Exclusive, TimeSlicing и Multi-Instance GPU (MIG). Для работы GPU-узла нужны драйвер NVIDIA и Container Toolkit — их можно поставить вручную или автоматизировать через NodeGroupConfiguration. Но управление самими GPU-ресурсами на уровне Kubernetes — публикация инвентаря, allocation, подготовка устройства для контейнера — это уже задача DRA-драйвера внутри GPU-модуля. И этот драйвер мы пишем сами.

В нашей текущей реализации (до появления UX-слоя GPUClass) работа с GPU проходит через несколько этапов:

  1. gpu-node-agent сканирует sysfs/PCI и создаёт PhysicalGPU.

  2. gpu-handler читает атрибуты устройства и публикует ResourceSlice.

  3. Пользователь вручную создаёт ResourceClaimTemplate и под с resourceClaims.

  4. Планировщик делает allocation.

  5. Kubelet вызывает DRA-плагин, а gpu-handler выполняет CDI-инъекцию, при необходимости создаёт MIG-слайсы и запускает MPS.

ca6729b7a7903e0ab866203237184d8d.png

Это очень важный слой, потому что он показывает две вещи.

1. Инвентарь как объект, а не строка в логе

Когда есть PhysicalGPU и ResourceSlice, вы получаете реальные точки диагностики:

  • что за устройство;

  • в каком оно режиме;

  • какие capabilities есть;

  • что именно было опубликовано планировщику.

И это на порядок лучше, чем смотреть в логи плагина и догадываться.

2. Prepare/Unprepare — это не дополнительная опция, а место, где живёт вся логика платформы

Когда под получает allocation и попадает на узел, kubelet вызывает у DRA-драйвера два gRPC-метода: PrepareResources при старте и UnprepareResources при завершении.

В Prepare/Unprepare живёт вся тяжёлая работа:

  • создание MIG-инстансов под запрос;

  • включение Multi-Process Service (MPS) под конкретную долю;

  • подготовка VFIO;

  • настройка режимов выделения и правила шаринга.

Всё это происходит не в одном красивом DeviceClass, а в коде драйвера на узле.

И здесь — принципиальное отличие DRA от device-plugin-мира, где Allocate слишком узок для такой модели, а всё сложное быстро уползает во внешние контроллеры и побочные механизмы.

Большой пример: как коммунальный H100-кластер переезжает на DRA по слоям

Теперь возьмём наш коммунальный кластер из примера в начале статьи и пройдём путь от device-plugin-модели к DRA — не абстрактно, а руками. Кластер работает под управлением Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform, где DRA-драйвер для GPU поставляется модулем GPU.

Напомню, что в кластере есть три класса нагрузок: обучение, продовый инференс и короткие GPU-задачи.

4d42372d4364110d61c9bdbef9f013a9.png

Переезд на DRA не обязан быть одним большим переключением. Training, prod inference и небольшие AI-сервисы переносятся разными слоями и проверяются по разным метрикам.

Слой 1: обучение оставляем максимально похожим на старый мир

Обучение — не лучший кандидат на первую волну «умного шаринга». Там важнее сохранить предсказуемость.

Поэтому для H100 training-пул в DRA-модели можно начать так:

  • DeviceClass выбирает только physical H100, то есть целую видеокарту;

  • под продолжает просить extended resource, который теперь обслуживает DRA.

Пример класса:

apiVersion: resource.k8s.io/v1
kind: DeviceClass
metadata:
  name: nvidia-h100-physical
spec:
  selectors:
    - cel:
        expression: |
          device.driver == "gpu.deckhouse.io" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].vendor == "nvidia" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].deviceType == "Physical" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].cudaReady == true &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].productName.lowerAscii().contains("h100")
  extendedResourceName: gpu.deckhouse.io/h100

И training workload почти не меняется:

apiVersion: batch/v1
kind: Job
metadata:
  name: llm-train-single-node
  namespace: ml-team
spec:
  template:
    spec:
      restartPolicy: Never
      containers:
      - name: trainer
        image: pytorch/pytorch:2.9.1-cuda12.8-cudnn9-runtime
        command: ["bash","-lc"]
        args:
          - |
            nvidia-smi
            python -c "print('training started')"
        resources:
          limits:
            gpu.deckhouse.io/h100: 8

Мостик через extended resources уже даёт вам полезную миграцию: путь выделения устройства новый, пользовательский контракт почти старый.

Слой 2: продовый инференс начинает жить профилями, а не целыми видеокартами

С инференсом всё интереснее. Там чаще нужен не «1 GPU», а:

  • профиль с конкретной памятью;

  • доля на общей карте;

  • контролируемый режим шеринга.

Если мы идём по пути MIG, DeviceClass начинает выражать уже не «любая из H100», а конкретный профиль. Например, под условную H100 MIG-профиль:

apiVersion: resource.k8s.io/v1
kind: DeviceClass
metadata:
  name: nvidia-h100-mig-3g40
spec:
  selectors:
    - cel:
        expression: |
          device.driver == "gpu.deckhouse.io" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].vendor == "nvidia" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].deviceType == "MIG" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].migProfile == "3g.40gb"
  extendedResourceName: gpu.deckhouse.io/h100-mig-40

А дальше inference-сервис может писать почти «по-старому»:

resources:
  limits:
    gpu.deckhouse.io/h100-mig-40: 1

Тут впервые становится видно, что DRA — это не просто новый API. Это способ говорить с кластером на языке «дай 40Gi-профиль», а не «дай целую карту, а дальше мы сами разберёмся».

Слой 3: небольшие AI-сервисы начинают делить профиль по правилам

Но на профилях переезд кластера ещё не заканчивается.

MIG-профиль решает проблему «мне не нужна целая H100». Но в реальном инференс-пуле быстро появляется следующий слой нагрузок: reranker, embeddings, summarizer, небольшие LLM-воркеры, batch inference и другие сервисы, которым часто не нужен даже весь выделенный MIG-профиль.

Если выдавать им профиль эксклюзивно, мы снова получаем старую проблему в новой форме: ресурс формально занят, а полезная загрузка ниже, чем могла бы быть.

Поэтому третий слой переезда — это уже не целая карта и не выделенный профиль, а контролируемая доля устройства.

И здесь важно разделить два уровня:

  • Kubernetes должен понимать, какая часть устройства уже занята и сколько ещё можно выдать.

  • Сам GPU должен уметь исполнять несколько CUDA-клиентов так, чтобы один сосед не забрал всё.

За первое в DRA отвечает consumable capacity. За второе в нашем примере отвечает MPS.

97e142ef06df0acf997b10b7b4e2d3d2.png

Consumable capacity: как Kubernetes считает доли

В DRA есть фича consumable capacity: одно и то же физическое устройство может выделяться нескольким независимым claims, а планировщик следит, чтобы суммарная потреблённая ёмкость не превышала capacity устройства. Это именно та модель, которая нужна для шаринга с контролем ресурсов.

На практике это значит, что если у GPU или MIG-профиля есть sharePercent: 100, то нескольким подам можно выдать 25 + 25 + 50, и Kubernetes будет понимать, что весь бюджет уже занят.

Это принципиально отличается от «просто размножили ресурс» в time-slicing. Здесь планировщик видит не набор условных одинаковых слотов, а потребление ёмкости конкретного устройства.

capacity:
  requests:
    sharePercent: "25"

Но consumable capacity сам по себе не заставляет CUDA-процессы эффективнее жить на одной карте. Он отвечает за учёт бюджета в Kubernetes.

Теперь нужен механизм на стороне GPU.

MPS: как GPU исполняет несколько CUDA-клиентов

Про Multi-Process Service люди часто слышат обрывками. Разберём по порядку: зачем он нужен, чем отличается от time-slicing, какие у него есть ограничения и настройки.

NVIDIA MPS нужен там, где каждый отдельный процесс не насыщает GPU. NVIDIA прямо пишет: без MPS процессы конкурируют за scheduling resources и контексты GPU приходится переключать; MPS позволяет нескольким процессам работать через общий MPS server, уменьшая эти накладные расходы и повышая concurrency. Это полезно именно для тех случаев, где рабочие нагрузки по отдельности недогружают GPU.

Для инференс-мира это очень понятный кандидат:

  • много небольших сервисов;

  • у каждого своя модель или свой batch;

  • отдельный сервис не нагружает H100 на 100 %;

  • хочется делить карту совместно, а не просто по очереди.

MPS часто лучше time-slicing. Последний делит GPU по времени. MPS же позволяет нескольким процессам одновременно иметь более эффективный доступ к GPU и уменьшает оверхед на переключение контекста.

При этом стоит иметь в виду, что MPS — это не замена Multi-Instance GPU. В целом выбор режима зависит от ваших требований к изоляции и утилизации ресурсов:

Режим

Когда использовать

Multi-Instance GPU

Нужны аппаратная изоляция и жёсткие гарантии ресурсов

Multi-Process Service

Нужно повысить concurrency и утилизацию в доверенном контуре, где важен controlled sharing

Time-slicing

Нужен максимально простой массовый шаринг, а требования к изоляции ниже

Итак, MPS позволяет нескольким процессам одновременно работать на одной видеокарте. Но без ограничений один клиент может «выжрать» все вычислительные ресурсы или всю память. Чтобы этого не произошло, предусмотрены два предохранителя.

1. Что такое active thread percentage в MPS

В MPS есть официальный механизм active thread percentage. Это настройка, которая ограничивает долю вычислительных ресурсов, доступных клиенту MPS server. NVIDIA отдельно описывает команды set_default_active_thread_percentage / set_active_thread_percentage и объясняет, что эта настройка используется для управления справедливым распределением ресурсов между клиентами.

Это та техническая ручка, которая делает осмысленным sharePercent в DRA-модели.

2. Что такое pinned memory limit и зачем он нужен

У MPS есть не только ограничение по вычислениям, но и отдельный потолок по памяти видеокарты для клиентов. В документации NVIDIA он называется pinned device memory limit.

Название может сбивать с толку, но смысл простой: это ограничение на то, сколько памяти видеокарты клиент MPS может занять через CUDA. Память не резервируется заранее и не нарезается на фиксированные куски. MPS-сервер задаёт верхний предел: больше этого объёма клиенту выделить не дадут.

Для этого NVIDIA описывает команды set_default_device_pinned_mem_limit и set_device_pinned_mem_limit. Первая задаёт потолок по памяти, которую будут получать клиенты новых MPS-серверов. Вторая задаёт такой потолок для клиентов уже запущенного MPS-сервера.

Дополнительно лимит можно ужесточить на стороне самого клиента через переменную CUDA_MPS_PINNED_DEVICE_MEM_LIMIT. Но клиент не может поднять лимит выше того, что разрешил MPS-сервер.

Практический смысл простой: если вы используете видеокарту в общем режиме через MPS, нужно ограничивать не только вычисления, но и память. Иначе один клиент может занять слишком много памяти видеокарты и помешать остальным, даже если доля вычислений у него ограничена.

MPS + consumable capacity: как шаринг выражается через DRA

MPS приживается в DRA-парадигме лучше, чем в device-plugin-мире. В последнем нет нативной модели, которая позволит сказать: «для этого пода — 25 % карты». В DRA такая модель появляется через consumable capacity.

Ниже — паттерн, который используется в низкоуровневом слое GPU-модуля Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform.

DeviceClass для physical H100 c MPS:

apiVersion: resource.k8s.io/v1
kind: DeviceClass
metadata:
  name: nvidia-h100-mps
spec:
  selectors:
    - cel:
        expression: |
          device.driver == "gpu.deckhouse.io" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].vendor == "nvidia" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].deviceType == "Physical" &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].cudaReady == true &&
          device.attributes["gpu.deckhouse.io"].productName.lowerAscii().contains("h100")
  config:
    - opaque:
        driver: gpu.deckhouse.io
        parameters:
          apiVersion: resource.gpu.deckhouse.io/v1alpha1
          kind: GpuConfig
          sharing:
            strategy: MPS
            mpsConfig:
              defaultActiveThreadPercentage: 25

ResourceClaimTemplate на 25 % доли видеокарты:

apiVersion: resource.k8s.io/v1
kind: ResourceClaimTemplate
metadata:
  name: rct-h100-mps-25
  namespace: inference-team
spec:
  spec:
    devices:
      requests:
        - name: gpu
          exactly:
            deviceClassName: nvidia-h100-mps
            count: 1
            capacity:
              requests:
                sharePercent: "25"

Pod/Deployment, который потребляет claim:

apiVersion: apps/v1
kind: Deployment
metadata:
  name: reranker-mps
  namespace: inference-team
spec:
  replicas: 4
  selector:
    matchLabels:
      app: reranker-mps
  template:
    metadata:
      labels:
        app: reranker-mps
    spec:
      resourceClaims:
        - name: gpu
          resourceClaimTemplateName: rct-h100-mps-25
      containers:
        - name: app
          image: ghcr.io/example/reranker:1.2.3
          resources:
            requests:
              cpu: "2"
              memory: "8Gi"
            limits:
              cpu: "4"
              memory: "16Gi"
            claims:
              - name: gpu

В отличие от time-slicing, здесь под запрашивает не «какой-нибудь GPU», а осмысленную долю карты, и планировщик учитывает её как реальный бюджет.

Как переносить весь кластер

После трёх примеров получается понятный порядок миграции.

Обучение оставляем на целых GPU. Здесь не надо первым делом придумывать шаринг: важнее сохранить предсказуемость и производительность.

Продовый инференс переводим с целой карты на профиль. Например, вместо всей H100 сервис получает MIG 3g.40gb, если этого достаточно по памяти и производительности.

Небольшие AI-сервисы и batch-задачи переводим на доли. Reranker, embeddings, summarizer и похожие сервисы часто не используют весь профиль целиком, поэтому здесь уже появляются MPS и sharePercent.

В итоге миграция выглядит так:

training         → full GPU
prod inference   → MIG-профиль
small AI / batch → MPS-доля

Мы не трогаем весь кластер одним движением. Каждый тип нагрузки переезжает отдельно и проверяется по своим метрикам:

training         → не просела производительность
prod inference   → не ухудшилась latency
small AI / batch → выросла плотность размещения

На этом базовая схема переезда понятна. Но для продовой эксплуатации нужно больше, чем просто разложить нагрузки по режимам.

Нам нужно видеть:

  • что именно выделено конкретному claim;

  • готово ли устройство до запуска пода;

  • как описывать динамические партиции вроде MIG.

Что ещё в DRA важно именно для GPU-платформы

Есть ещё несколько фич DRA, которые напрямую влияют на то, насколько «по-взрослому» вы сможете эксплуатировать GPU. В feature gates GPU-модуля Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform все они фигурируют как единый набор DRA-возможностей.

ResourceClaim device status

Фича DRAResourceClaimDeviceStatus позволяет DRA-драйверу писать status в ResourceClaim.status.devices. Это полезно для диагностики: вы видите не только то, что под не стартует, но и то, какое именно устройство ему назначено, в каком оно режиме и готово ли к работе.

Device Binding Conditions

Фича DRADeviceBindingConditions добавляет условия привязки устройств к поду. Это особенно интересно для сложных сценариев вроде fabric-attached devices или будущих GPU+RDMA-связок: планировщик может задерживать bind, пока не выполнены условия готовности.

Partitionable devices

DRAPartitionableDevices — это важный слой под hardware partitioning. Он позволяет драйверу объявлять доступными для планировщика несколько логических устройств, которые потребляют одни и те же физические ресурсы. Для MIG-подобных историй это очень естественная модель.

Почему мы в Deckhouse делаем свой DRA-драйвер, а не просто берём vendor reference

Выше я коротко упоминал, что мы пишем свой DRA-драйвер. Такие утверждения нередко вызывают у читателей вопрос: «Зачем?»

У NVIDIA есть свой DRA Driver for GPUs, и в документации они честно описывают, что понадобится для его работы:

  • Kubernetes 1.34.2+;

  • включённый Container Device Interface;

  • включённый feature gate DRAExtendedResource, если хотите использовать привычные nvidia.com/gpu;

  • и, что важно, отключённый NVIDIA Kubernetes Device Plugin, чтобы не было конфликта с DRA Driver for GPUs.

У AMD тоже уже есть свой DRA-драйвер. В обзорной статье они прямо показывают, как DRA переводит GPU в first-class, а также attribute-aware-ресурсы: ResourceSlice, декларативный ResourceClaim, атрибуты вроде partitionProfile, модель/память/PCIe-root и так далее. При этом сам GitHub-репозиторий честно помечен как «experimental/alpha».

То есть вендорский путь существует. Но нам нужно больше, чем просто аллокация GPU через DRA. Мы хотим видеть внутри GPU-модуля Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform:

  • мультивендорность;

  • единый инвентарь через PhysicalGPU;

  • on-demand-режимы — MIG, MPS и другие;

  • мостик к более простому UX;

  • перспективу NVLink/RDMA-топологии и расширенного планирования.

Поэтому мы и строим свой слой, где DRA остаётся стандартом Kubernetes, а платформа получает нужные пользователям свойства.

Для хардкорных ребят: зачем мы делаем свой DRA-драйвер на примере динамического Multi-Instance GPU

Существование в Kubernetes фичи DRAPartitionableDevices не просто означает, что теперь можно описать партиции устройства. Смысл сильнее: DRA-драйвер может публиковать несколько логических устройств, которые потребляют общие ресурсы одной физической карты, в том числе перекрывающиеся. Планировщик при этом выбирает совместимые партиции и не позволяет одновременно выдать те, которые конфликтуют за одни физические ресурсы.

Более того, такая модель даёт вендору возможность создавать партиции динамически в момент allocation, а не держать карту заранее нарезанной в отдельном статическом пуле. Это прямо зафиксировано и в KEP по partitionable devices, и в релизных материалах Kubernetes по DRA.

Для NVIDIA Multi-Instance GPU динамическое партицирование особенно важно. MIG не просто делит GPU на несколько одинаковых прямоугольников. В KEP разобран пример A100: профиль MIG потребляет сразу несколько измерений ёмкости — memory slices, multiprocessors, copy engines, decoder/encoder blocks и так далее. При этом разные MIG-профили могут перекрываться по одним ресурсам и не конфликтовать по другим.

Планировщик должен уметь работать не только с количеством профилей, а с общими счётчиками и конфликтующими вариантами разбиения. Именно это и даёт DRAPartitionableDevices: устройство можно представить как «мешок» ресурсов, из которого в момент выделения собирается подходящий профиль.

Именно здесь начинается то, ради чего мы в Deckhouse делаем свой DRA-драйвер.

В нашем дизайне источником истины для публикации офферов является не текущий моментальный срез с узла, а PhysicalGPU.status.capabilities + currentState. Мы строим ResourceSlice из инвентаря PhysicalGPU, а не просто из того, что сейчас уже создано на хосте.

Это даёт очень важное следствие: для MIG-capable карты мы можем публиковать MIG-офферы, даже когда карта работает в full-режиме, если у нас есть валидные профили и placements. Если профиль/placement ещё неполный, запускается bootstrap-обогащение: на свободной карте временно включается MIG-режим, дочитываются профили/placements, которые дальше кешируются и становятся частью инвентаря. Кластер знает не только то, что карта делает сейчас, но и то, какие режимы она вообще умеет предоставить.

На этапе Prepare опубликованные офферы реализуются как настоящий dynamic MIG. В GPU-модуле Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform gpu-handler не просто инжектит CDI-устройство в контейнер, а умеет:

  • определить, что claim требует MIG-профиль;

  • при необходимости включить MIG mode на свободной карте;

  • через auto-MIG planner посчитать, какие GPU Instance/Compute Instance нужно создать;

  • создать нужный MIG-инстанс под конкретный claim;

  • и на Unprepare убрать его обратно, если он был создан динамически.

Это очень сильно отличается от статической MIG-модели, где вы заранее режете узел под один профиль и потом распределяете рабочие нагрузки внутри этого решения. У нас другой опыт эксплуатации:

  • не нужно заранее держать отдельные MIG-пулы под каждый профиль;

  • не нужно вручную переводить узлы между full и MIG-режимом как отдельную операцию для пользователей;

  • не нужно заранее угадывать, какой профиль сегодня победит по спросу.

Важно, что я сейчас не обещаю чудес без единого движения на узле. Если для переключения режима нужно обслуживание, вытеснение подов или временная пауза на GPU-узле, наш драйвер делает это контролируемо через maintenance-поток.

Но главное здесь в другом: переход между Physical и MIG становится частью жизненного цикла аллокации, а не отдельным ручным процессом платформенной команды.

Вторая важная вещь: MPS поверх dynamic MIG.

Для нас shared-режим — это не «добавим ещё одну технологию в список», а часть модели controlled sharing. В текущей ветке GPU-модуль уже поддерживает:

  • MPS на Physical;

  • MPS на MIG;

  • sharePercent как пользовательский бюджет для shared-режима;

  • публикацию sharePercent через DRA capacity при включённом DRAConsumableCapacity.

Именно поэтому DRAPartitionableDevices для нас важен не сам по себе, а как база для связки dynamic MIG + MPS + единый DRA-жизненный цикл.

Пользователь может попросить не подготовленный заранее узел, а подходящий профиль, а уже Deckhouse Kubernetes Platform решает:

  • создать ли MIG-слайс под запрос;

  • использовать ли shared-режим;

  • как это опубликовать, заквотировать и потом корректно освободить.

Уже в этой точке видно, почему нам недостаточно просто взять nvidia-dra-driver-gpu как есть.

У NVIDIA DRA-драйвер действительно уже умеет controlled sharing и dynamic reconfiguration GPU. Однако если посмотреть на dynamic MIG в их текущей реализации, то там есть важные ограничения.

Эта возможность помечена как alpha и в первой релизной итерации ориентирована на H100 и новее, а для видеокарты A100 прямо оговорено, что она пока не поддерживается, потому что не умеет свободно включать/выключать MIG mode. Кроме того, включение DynamicMIG у NVIDIA пока взаимоисключает MPSSupport, NVMLDeviceHealthCheck и PassthroughSupport.

Для нас этого недостаточно по простой причине — нам нужна единая модель, где в одном драйвере и одном инвентаре живут:

  • dynamic MIG;

  • MPS на Physical и на MIG;

  • переключение между full-режимом и MIG-режимом по запросу;

  • VFIO как режим Physical;

  • мультивендорный контур с AMD/Intel и будущей топологией.

DRAPartitionableDevices — не просто одна из полезных фич DRA. В GPU-мире это та точка, где DRA начинает давать новое качество платформы. Не просто «мы умеем описать GPU», а «мы умеем публиковать возможные режимы карты, выбирать их под запрос и создавать нужную конфигурацию в момент выделения».

Именно поэтому в нашем модуле эта фича идёт в одном пакете с DRAConsumableCapacity, DRAExtendedResource, DRAResourceClaimDeviceStatus и DRADeviceBindingConditions. Только вместе они складываются в действительно рабочую модель GPU-платформы.

Итоги: что DRA меняет в управлении устройствами

Если собрать весь материал статьи воедино, то Dynamic Resource Allocation — это не дополнительный API поверх device plugin. DRA меняет саму модель работы с шаренными устройствами внутри одного Kubernetes-кластера:

  • инвентарь устройств становится объектом API (ResourceSlice);

  • заявка на устройство или его часть становится декларативной (ResourceClaim / Template);

  • жизненный цикл устройства появляется как нормальный prepare/unprepare;

  • появляется реальный путь к controlled sharing (consumable capacity) и hardware partitioning.

А ещё DRA даёт очень важную вещь именно для миграции с device plugin: можно начать с привычных extended resources, а уже потом переходить к более выразительной модели.

Продолжение следует

В финальной статье мы сделаем следующий шаг: покажем, как превратить этот мощный, но местами многословный DRA-слой в зDRAвый пользовательский опыт. Такой, где разработчик просит «класс GPU + память + количество + долю», а платформа берёт на себя всю сложность и эксплуатационные гарантии.

Читайте также в нашем блоге

  1. DRAматургия GPU в Kubernetes: зачем нужен DRA, если Device Plugin работает? Разбираем грабли AI-инфраструктуры

  2. Распределённый инференс и шардирование LLM. Часть 1: настройка GPU, проброс в Proxmox и настройка Kubernetes

  3. Распределённый инференс и шардирование LLM. Часть 2: скрипт vLLM, Ray Serve для вывода API и настройка KubeRay Cluster

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  • 18.07.26 23:51 bernalzenaida

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  • 19.07.26 04:10 Fraddy Pual

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  • 19.07.26 19:53 kimberlyhebertt6877

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  • 19.07.26 19:53 kimberlyhebertt6877

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  • 19.07.26 19:54 kimberlyhebertt6877

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  • 30.07.26 00:04 Ahmed

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  • 30.07.26 17:27 wendytaylor015

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  • 04.08.26 11:05 Kisnoles

    Excellent analysis, thank you. I was particularly struck by how rigidly the skill sets the order: data processing and form come first, with color coming last. This really cures the habit of "first a pretty palette, then we'll figure it out." A palette validator using OKLCH + color blindness + WCAG is something most chart generators lack. And regarding the boundaries of competence, it's very clear. Where there's a self-checking loop (color), you delegate freely. Where there's a heuristic (form, data interpretation), you remain the final filter. This is a universal principle, not just for /dataviz. By the way, when you look at trading dashboards (including those of decent platforms like ExpertOption), it's immediately clear who thought about readability and who just threw in rainbow lines. Tools like this skill could greatly improve the quality of analytics. Thanks again for the detailed analysis – saved.

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  • 23.08.26 20:02 leslieyee

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  • 05.09.26 21:38 [email protected]

    I invested 45,000  Euro, and later aggreviated to 198,000 Euro.  I requested  to place ‎Withdrawal of my funds to be paid to my Bank account. But nothing happened I was subjected to pay more fee until I can get my funds on my account, i got in touch with Theodore ryan here on this platform who had helped a lot of people, I followed all instructions and he legally got back my withheld funds, I got threatened by the company that if I don’t pay they will get my account frozen, all thanks to Theodore ryan and I highly recommend him to anyone dealing with an unregulated broker company… contact him on his Gmail - theodoreryan318@  gmail .  com

  • 09.09.26 21:31 lisawerth897

    My Experience With Cryptocurrency — CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER I lost over $82,000 in Bitcoin after falling victim to a fraudulent online investment scheme. After realizing I had been scammed, I spent considerable time researching possible ways to recover my funds. During my research, I came across CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER and decided to contact them after reading their reported success record and encouraging client positive reviews and testimonials. Their team guided me through the recovery process, and I was grateful to successfully recover my lost cryptocurrency. The experience was challenging, but I appreciated the assistance and support I received throughout the process. I’m sharing my experience in the hope that it may encourage other victims to carefully research their options and verify any recovery service before proceeding. I will forever be thankful to you CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER 📧 [email protected] 🌐 Website: recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1 📧 [email protected] 📞 Call/WhatsApp: +1 (336) 390-6684

  • 09.09.26 21:31 lisawerth897

    My Experience With Cryptocurrency — CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER I lost over $82,000 in Bitcoin after falling victim to a fraudulent online investment scheme. After realizing I had been scammed, I spent considerable time researching possible ways to recover my funds. During my research, I came across CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER and decided to contact them after reading their reported success record and encouraging client positive reviews and testimonials. Their team guided me through the recovery process, and I was grateful to successfully recover my lost cryptocurrency. The experience was challenging, but I appreciated the assistance and support I received throughout the process. I’m sharing my experience in the hope that it may encourage other victims to carefully research their options and verify any recovery service before proceeding. I will forever be thankful to you CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER 📧 [email protected] 🌐 Website: recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1 📧 [email protected] 📞 Call/WhatsApp: +1 (336) 390-6684

  • 09.09.26 23:22 Fraddy Pual

    Hearing that these individuals are focusing on other people makes me very sad. I had a similar situation with them and lost a lot of money, but after learning about (Cruxcipherteam @ proton DoT me), whataqq:+168160-15021, telegram: @Cruxcipherteam I was able to get my money back. It's critical that we all be watchful and keep reporting these occurrences.

  • 11.09.26 03:23 kimberlyhebertt6877

    I invested in bitcoin trading After losing $78.4 USDT) linked to a romance fraud scam worth of cryptocurrency through an online investment platform and later discovered it was a scam. After extensive research for recovery options, I contacted CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER based on positive client reviews and recommendations. Their professional security team guided me through the recovery process using advanced technology, and I was able to recover my lost cryptocurrency successfully. I am truly grateful for their support and assistance during such a difficult experience. I will advise you to contact CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER helped me recover my funds. For anyone facing similar issues, Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1 Email: [email protected] Telegram: @Capitalcryptorecover Contact: [email protected] WhatsApp/Text Number: +1 (336) 390-6684

  • 11.09.26 03:23 kimberlyhebertt6877

    I invested in bitcoin trading After losing $78.4 USDT) linked to a romance fraud scam worth of cryptocurrency through an online investment platform and later discovered it was a scam. After extensive research for recovery options, I contacted CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER based on positive client reviews and recommendations. Their professional security team guided me through the recovery process using advanced technology, and I was able to recover my lost cryptocurrency successfully. I am truly grateful for their support and assistance during such a difficult experience. I will advise you to contact CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER helped me recover my funds. For anyone facing similar issues, Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1 Email: [email protected] Telegram: @Capitalcryptorecover Contact: [email protected] WhatsApp/Text Number: +1 (336) 390-6684

  • 15.09.26 03:35 elioduncan

    I fell victim to a freelance web development contract scam that ultimately cost me CAD 4,000. It all started when I came across a job posting on Indeed Canada, a popular online job portal. The position seemed perfect: a freelance web developer role for an established company looking for someone to design and build a fully functional e-commerce website. The job promised a high payment of CAD 20,000 upon successful completion, which sounded like a great opportunity for me to gain experience and earn decent pay.The employer, who introduced himself as a project manager from a "well-known" tech company, was very persuasive and professional in our initial communication. He explained that the project involved developing a user-friendly, responsive online store for their client and that they had a strict timeline to meet. He assured me that the payment would be made promptly after completing the tasks. However, before starting the work, he told me that I would need to pay an upfront fee of CAD 4,000 to cover certain software tools and licensing fees required for the project. This was supposedly a part of their company policy for freelance contractors, ensuring access to their premium resources. The idea of working on a professional project, coupled with the promise of a substantial payout, convinced me to pay the upfront fee.As soon as I made the payment, the project manager became increasingly difficult to reach. He initially responded to my emails and provided some vague instructions on what the project would entail, but as time went on, communication slowed to a complete halt. I never received the required tools or any proper project details. My emails went unanswered, and any attempts to contact the company were met with silence. After waiting for weeks, I realized that I had been scammed.Desperate to recover my money, I turned to TechY Force Cyber Retrieval, a service that specializes in helping victims of online scams. They helped me track the payment and took legal steps to pursue the fraudsters. Through their guidance, I was able to recover the full CAD 4,000. TechY Force Cyber Retrieval worked with my bank to reverse the transaction and liaised with the authorities to trace the scammer's details.This was a hard lesson, and I now know to be highly cautious about online job offers that require upfront payments. It is crucial to research companies thoroughly and avoid any job that seems too good to be true, especially when it involves paying money upfront. WhatsApp https://wa.link/2x6ktp Mail. [email protected]

  • 15.09.26 15:45 lydiassmith567

    HIRE A HACKER YOUR STOLEN CRYPTO RECOVERY / BTC / USDT / ETH WITH THE HELP OF CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER. I want to share my experience publicly regarding cryptocurrency wallet recovery, I highly recommend you to contact CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER, a professional private investigator in the Bitcoin world. They have a certified expert security team specializing in Bitcoin Recovery Services and have helped many people worldwide recover their lost funds. My wife and I were defrauded by an online manipulator posing as an experienced crypto investment professional. We lost $9.2 Million Stolen BTC in cryptocurrency and were left feeling homeless. After spending hours searching for a reliable crypto recovery service, I discovered CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER online. By patiently explaining my situation to their team, I was able to recover all my funds. Remarkably, my money was returned to my wallet in less than 24 hours. I am extremely grateful to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER for their excellent assistance—they truly were a godsend in my difficult situation. If you have fallen victim to a cryptocurrency scam, you can reach CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER through the following channels Email: [email protected] OR Call/WhatsApp: +1 (336) 390-6684 Contact: [email protected] Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1

  • 15.09.26 15:45 lydiassmith567

    HIRE A HACKER YOUR STOLEN CRYPTO RECOVERY / BTC / USDT / ETH WITH THE HELP OF CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER. I want to share my experience publicly regarding cryptocurrency wallet recovery, I highly recommend you to contact CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER, a professional private investigator in the Bitcoin world. They have a certified expert security team specializing in Bitcoin Recovery Services and have helped many people worldwide recover their lost funds. My wife and I were defrauded by an online manipulator posing as an experienced crypto investment professional. We lost $9.2 Million Stolen BTC in cryptocurrency and were left feeling homeless. After spending hours searching for a reliable crypto recovery service, I discovered CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER online. By patiently explaining my situation to their team, I was able to recover all my funds. Remarkably, my money was returned to my wallet in less than 24 hours. I am extremely grateful to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER for their excellent assistance—they truly were a godsend in my difficult situation. If you have fallen victim to a cryptocurrency scam, you can reach CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER through the following channels Email: [email protected] OR Call/WhatsApp: +1 (336) 390-6684 Contact: [email protected] Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1

  • 05.10.26 21:26 [email protected]

    I Invested 45,000  Euro, and later aggreviated to 198,000 Euro.  I requested  to place Withdrawal of my funds to be paid to my Bank account. But nothing happened I was subjected to pay more fee until I can get my funds on my account, i got in touch with Theodore ryan here on this platform who had helped a lot of people, I followed all instructions and he legally got back my withheld funds, I got threatened by the company that if I don’t pay they will get my account frozen, all thanks to Theodore ryan and I highly recommend him to anyone dealing with an unregulated broker company… contact him on his Gmail - theodoreryan318@  gmail .  com

  • 06.10.26 06:13 melissathomason573

    Professional Crypto Recovery Testimonial After losing a significant amount of cryptocurrency through a scam on Twitter, I was unsure whether my Bitcoin funds could ever be recovered. The experience was extremely stressful, particularly because I encountered several individuals and services claiming they could help recover my assets, only to discover that some were fraudulent themselves. A friend eventually referred me to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER. Their team handled my case professionally, discreetly, and efficiently. With their assistance, I successfully recovered approximately $130,000 worth of USDT in just over a week. My experience taught me the importance of being extremely cautious when seeking cryptocurrency recovery services, as scammers often target victims a second time. I am grateful to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER for the assistance I received and wanted to share my experience with others who may be facing a similar situation. If you’ve been compromised, don’t lose hope—and be careful of fraudsters posing as saviors. CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER are real professionals in crypto recovery. I am a living proof of their effectiveness, you can reach them through Phone (Call/WhatsApp): +1 (336) 390-6684 Email: [email protected] Alternate Email: [email protected] Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1

  • 06.10.26 06:13 melissathomason573

    Professional Crypto Recovery Testimonial After losing a significant amount of cryptocurrency through a scam on Twitter, I was unsure whether my Bitcoin funds could ever be recovered. The experience was extremely stressful, particularly because I encountered several individuals and services claiming they could help recover my assets, only to discover that some were fraudulent themselves. A friend eventually referred me to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER. Their team handled my case professionally, discreetly, and efficiently. With their assistance, I successfully recovered approximately $130,000 worth of USDT in just over a week. My experience taught me the importance of being extremely cautious when seeking cryptocurrency recovery services, as scammers often target victims a second time. I am grateful to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER for the assistance I received and wanted to share my experience with others who may be facing a similar situation. If you’ve been compromised, don’t lose hope—and be careful of fraudsters posing as saviors. CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER are real professionals in crypto recovery. I am a living proof of their effectiveness, you can reach them through Phone (Call/WhatsApp): +1 (336) 390-6684 Email: [email protected] Alternate Email: [email protected] Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1

  • 06.10.26 17:44 Darrell1717

    I fell victim of a scam I invested to total of 5thousand into. I know it could be risky but after I trusted this man I was dating online he lured me into investing with him. I know hard I worked of my money so I wanted every way possible to get it back. I really appreciate Blockrecoveryexpert for successfully recovered my funds form this scammer. This is all I can say. You can reachout if you ever need help contact blockrecoveryexpert (at) gmail (dot)com

  • 11.10.26 03:04 Patricia014

    Most recovery companies will take your money again. I personally think they’re the same set of people running all of them. It’s a sad, unending cycle, and so many people fall for cloned websites. The only recovery agent I know is Agent Rottgen Raphael. I’ve visited their physical company address, and they’ll tell you if they can handle your case instead of taking upfront payment when they know they can’t help. I highly appreciate their support in recovering my money from the scammers’ wallet within 24 hours. RottgenRaphael@Gmail. com

  • 12.10.26 19:34 lydiassmith567

    HIRE A HACKER YOUR STOLEN CRYPTO RECOVERY / BTC / USDT / ETH WITH THE HELP OF CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER. I want to share my experience publicly regarding cryptocurrency wallet recovery, I highly recommend you to contact CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER, a professional private investigator in the Bitcoin world. They have a certified expert security team specializing in Bitcoin Recovery Services and have helped many people worldwide recover their lost funds. My wife and I were defrauded by an online manipulator posing as an experienced crypto investment professional. We lost $9.2 Million Stolen BTC in cryptocurrency and were left feeling homeless. After spending hours searching for a reliable crypto recovery service, I discovered CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER online. By patiently explaining my situation to their team, I was able to recover all my funds. Remarkably, my money was returned to my wallet in less than 24 hours. I am extremely grateful to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER for their excellent assistance—they truly were a godsend in my difficult situation. If you have fallen victim to a cryptocurrency scam, you can reach CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER through the following channels Email: [email protected] OR Call/WhatsApp: +1 (336) 390-6684 Contact: [email protected] Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1

  • 12.10.26 19:34 lydiassmith567

    HIRE A HACKER YOUR STOLEN CRYPTO RECOVERY / BTC / USDT / ETH WITH THE HELP OF CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER. I want to share my experience publicly regarding cryptocurrency wallet recovery, I highly recommend you to contact CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER, a professional private investigator in the Bitcoin world. They have a certified expert security team specializing in Bitcoin Recovery Services and have helped many people worldwide recover their lost funds. My wife and I were defrauded by an online manipulator posing as an experienced crypto investment professional. We lost $9.2 Million Stolen BTC in cryptocurrency and were left feeling homeless. After spending hours searching for a reliable crypto recovery service, I discovered CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER online. By patiently explaining my situation to their team, I was able to recover all my funds. Remarkably, my money was returned to my wallet in less than 24 hours. I am extremely grateful to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER for their excellent assistance—they truly were a godsend in my difficult situation. If you have fallen victim to a cryptocurrency scam, you can reach CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER through the following channels Email: [email protected] OR Call/WhatsApp: +1 (336) 390-6684 Contact: [email protected] Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1

  • 13.10.26 14:14 lisalisa22

    Legitimate Cryptocurrency Recovery Services: Consult ZEUS CRYPTO RECOVERY SERVICES Zeus Crypto Recovery Services supports individuals exploring options after cryptocurrency losses from fraud, unauthorised transfers, or wallet access issues. Services may include blockchain analysis, wallet tracing, and evidence gathering for investigations. Each case is reviewed. Zeus Crypto Recovery Services is a trusted company with the highest success rate among cryptocurrency recovery services in 2025/2026 and is highly recommended if you have been scammed. ZEUS CRYPTO RECOVERY SERVICES handles case such as Scammed USDT Lost BTC, Coinbase Wallet Forgotten password, ETH and coins, etc. Anything that has to do with cryptocurrency or lost digital assets, ZEUS can help you Do you Need Help? Website https://zeusrecoveryservices.com Mailbox [email protected] WhatsApp number +447798816938 Telegram https://t.me/Zeuscryptorecoveryservices

  • 13.10.26 14:14 lisalisa22

    Legitimate Cryptocurrency Recovery Services: Consult ZEUS CRYPTO RECOVERY SERVICES Zeus Crypto Recovery Services supports individuals exploring options after cryptocurrency losses from fraud, unauthorised transfers, or wallet access issues. Services may include blockchain analysis, wallet tracing, and evidence gathering for investigations. Each case is reviewed. Zeus Crypto Recovery Services is a trusted company with the highest success rate among cryptocurrency recovery services in 2025/2026 and is highly recommended if you have been scammed. ZEUS CRYPTO RECOVERY SERVICES handles case such as Scammed USDT Lost BTC, Coinbase Wallet Forgotten password, ETH and coins, etc. Anything that has to do with cryptocurrency or lost digital assets, ZEUS can help you Do you Need Help? Website https://zeusrecoveryservices.com Mailbox [email protected] WhatsApp number +447798816938 Telegram https://t.me/Zeuscryptorecoveryservices

  • 17.10.26 12:58 melissathomason573

    Professional Crypto Recovery Testimonial After losing a significant amount of cryptocurrency through a scam on Twitter, I was unsure whether my Bitcoin funds could ever be recovered. The experience was extremely stressful, particularly because I encountered several individuals and services claiming they could help recover my assets, only to discover that some were fraudulent themselves. A friend eventually referred me to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER. Their team handled my case professionally, discreetly, and efficiently. With their assistance, I successfully recovered approximately $130,000 worth of USDT in just over a week. My experience taught me the importance of being extremely cautious when seeking cryptocurrency recovery services, as scammers often target victims a second time. I am grateful to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER for the assistance I received and wanted to share my experience with others who may be facing a similar situation. If you’ve been compromised, don’t lose hope—and be careful of fraudsters posing as saviors. CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER are real professionals in crypto recovery. I am a living proof of their effectiveness, you can reach them through Phone (Call/WhatsApp): +1 (336) 390-6684 Email: [email protected] Alternate Email: [email protected] Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1

  • 17.10.26 12:58 melissathomason573

    Professional Crypto Recovery Testimonial After losing a significant amount of cryptocurrency through a scam on Twitter, I was unsure whether my Bitcoin funds could ever be recovered. The experience was extremely stressful, particularly because I encountered several individuals and services claiming they could help recover my assets, only to discover that some were fraudulent themselves. A friend eventually referred me to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER. Their team handled my case professionally, discreetly, and efficiently. With their assistance, I successfully recovered approximately $130,000 worth of USDT in just over a week. My experience taught me the importance of being extremely cautious when seeking cryptocurrency recovery services, as scammers often target victims a second time. I am grateful to CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER for the assistance I received and wanted to share my experience with others who may be facing a similar situation. If you’ve been compromised, don’t lose hope—and be careful of fraudsters posing as saviors. CAPITAL CRYPTO RECOVER are real professionals in crypto recovery. I am a living proof of their effectiveness, you can reach them through Phone (Call/WhatsApp): +1 (336) 390-6684 Email: [email protected] Alternate Email: [email protected] Website: https://recovercapital.wixsite.com/capital-crypto-rec-1

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